Musa textilis is the third of three plants from the GFU for Underutilized Species series. Many thanks to Hannes Dempewolf and Paul Bordoni. Photo courtesy of Botanische Bilddatenbank.

Abacá is a species of banana (Musaceae) with inedible fruits, native to the Philippines. It is also grown widely in Borneo and Sumatra. Sometimes it is referred to as "BacBac". The plant is harvested for its fibre, called Manila hemp. The fibre is extracted from the sheaths, i.e., the bottom part of the leaves forming the pseudo-stem. Other common names for Manila hemp include "Cebu hemp" and "Davao hemp".

The fibre made from Abacá is very durable and flexible. It is relatively cheap to produce and completely biodegradable. It can be made into many hard-wearing products and has a beautiful texture when made into hats and other products.

Until the advent of the first synthetic fibres, Manila hemp was the premiere material for marine ropes where its strength, lightness and water-resistance were appreciated. Today, although marine and other ropes are still important, it is mainly used in the paper-making industry. Because of its relatively long staple length, strength, and cellulose content, it is used to manufacture a range of specialized papers, including tea and coffee bags, sausage-casing paper, electrolytic papers, currency notes, cigarette filter papers, medical / disposal papers and some high-quality writing paper. There is also a thriving Abacá fibre handicraft industry operating in the Philippines, exporting worldwide.

At the start of the rainy season, well-developed suckers are transplanted in well-drained loamy soils. New leaves emerge in succession from the centre of the pseudo-stem. At first, they are rolled up, then gradually unfurl. The petiole of each new leaf is slightly staggered in relation to the previous one resulting in an upward spiral. The pseudo-stem can reach a height of more than 3 meters and the whole plant can become 6 meters tall.

At the beginning of the flowering stage, the plant is cut at the base of the pseudo-stem. Growers harvest Abacá fields every three to eight months after an initial growth period of 18-25 months for a total lifespan of up to 25 years (the rhizome continuously produces new suckers). The sheaths contain the valuable fibre, composed primarily of cellulose, lignin and pectin. The fibre is extracted from the leaf sheath by hand-stripping or via a machine. The strips are then scraped to remove the pulp, sometimes washed, and then sun-dried. The fibres can then be spun into twines or cordage.

Out of the world's total estimated annual production of 82,000 tons, the Philippines produce 67,000 tons, by far the largest producer. Over the past 40 years, production has been developed in Ecuador (today producing some 14,000 tons). Production in the Philippines is based on a "smallholder" system of agriculture, with most farms being between 3 and 5 hectares in size. Abacá grows on marginal lands and requires no external inputs, thus making it a suitable crop for resource-poor small scale farmers. The Ecuadorian system is more reminiscent of the African sisal industry and is essentially a large estate-based industry (although there is also a substantial smallholder co-operative movement). The traditional Abacá industry contributes to improving the livelihood of rural people and gender empowerment through providing employment opportunities for farmers, strippers, traders and processors.

Some Producers / Retailers / Distributors:

• Sosan Industries Inc.
• Philippines Nature Products
• Wigglesworth Fibres

The second of three entries featuring plants from the GFU for Underutilized species exhibits Oxalis tuberosa of the Oxalidaceae. Thanks Hannes and Paul! Photo courtesy of the International Potato Centre (CIP).

Oca is a starchy edible tuber that was domesticated in the Andes in South America. It is at least as hardy as the potato and grown in a similar way but it is not as susceptible to pests and diseases as potatoes.

When freshly harvested, the tubers have a pleasant acidic flavour. They are consumed cooked or baked. They can also be eaten raw in small quantities. Exposed to sunlight for a few days, the tubers lose some of their acidity and become more pleasant to eat.

Oca can be prepared, like most tuberous vegetables, by being boiled, baked or fried. In the Andes, it can be part of stews and soups, served like potatoes or served as a sweet. Oca is eaten raw in Mexico with salt, lemon and hot pepper.

Oca forms tubers only at a daylength of under 13-14 hours. Outside of its native area, such as in higher latitudes, autumn frosts may kill the plant before the tubers are fully developed. Under such conditions, commercially relevant yields are hard to achieve.

Projects to improve poor rural families' quality of life through the management and commercialization of oca have been implemented in various places. One example is the village of Puno in southeastern Peru where infant mortality and illiteracy rate are almost twice the national average. Mismanagement of organic garbage and loss of biodiversity has created serious problems with environmental deterioration, and families have little access to employment and income.

The project aims to contribute to the improvement of environmental conditions and increase the incomes of rural families in the Lake Titicaca area by encouraging farmers to produce oca. The project is targeting a new beneficiary group, Puno's indigenous people, by training them on how to make marmalade from oca. The project will also produce 40 metric tons of organic fertilizer from manure and crop residue, manage roughly 10 hectares of oca, and establish six rural micro enterprises.

Some Producers/Retailers/Distributors

• CIRNMA

The second series featuring plants from the Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species begins with Moringa oleifera, of the Moringaceae. Thanks again to Hannes Dempewolf and Paul Bordoni of the GFU for making these entries possible. Photo courtesy of Melanie Brown of the APPEF PROJECT, TOGO.

Moringa oleifera is the best known of the thirteen species of the genus Moringa. Though apparently native only to restricted areas in the southern foothills of the Himalayas, Moringa oleifera is present in all the countries of the tropics. This fast-growing tree is grown for human food, medicine, dye, fodder and water clarification. Moringa oleifera is known by several names in different countries, but it is popularly called the "drumstick tree" for its pods resembling drumsticks and the "horseradish tree" for the flavour of its roots.

The moringa is planted for its leaves, fruits, and roots for a variety of food and medicinal purposes. It has been described as one of the world's most nutritious crops. The leaves have more betacarotene than carrots, more protein than peas, more vitamin C than oranges, more calcium than milk, more iron than spinach, and as much potassium as bananas. The young fruits can be cooked in a number of different ways. An excellent oil is derived from the seeds, which is used for cooking and cosmetics. Immature seeds can be used in recipes similar to green peas. The leaves are extensively used as a vegetable in many parts of the world, and the root can be made into a condiment similar to horseradish. Fresh or dried flowers are used for making teas.

Moringa is used successfully in combating malnourishment in children and for its capacity to boost the immune system -- it can be used to complement modern medicines in chronically ill people including those suffering from AIDS and HIV related illnesses. It is also used in traditional medicine for the treatment of various illnesses including recovery from liver damage. It is currently being examined as a bio-enhancer of drugs and nutrients because of its production of compounds with antibiotic activity.

Leaves can be harvested after plants grow 1.5 to 2 meters, which usually takes 3 to 6 months. They are harvested by snapping leaf stems from branches or by cutting the entire branches 20 to 40 cm above the ground. Older leaves need to be stripped from their tough and wiry stems. These leaves are more suited to making dried leaf powder, since stems can be removed during the sifting process. For fresh vegetables, the leaves must be harvested early in the morning and sold the same day. Flowers and pods are produced during the second year of growth. The pods are harvested when young, tender and green. The pulp and immature seeds of older pods remain edible until shortly before the ripening process begins.

Virtually every part of the tree is beneficial in some way and both rural and urban people depend on it for their livelihood. Depending on the purpose and quantity, moringa is grown in nurseries, as a community project, or on a small scale at the family level. It can function as windbreaks, for land erosion control, live fences, as an ornamental, or intercropped to provide semi-shade to species requiring less direct sunlight.

Some Producers/Retailers/Distributors

• Zija
• Natco

Thank you to Connor for both today's photograph and write-up!

Epimedium grandiflorum is a member of the Berberidaceae and is native to China, Korea, and parts of Japan. Its silky white petals and sepals with a retreating border of purple give this flower a particular elegance. On a breezy day the entire inflorescence stirs in unanimous agitation. Common names for this plant are barrenwort and yin yang huo.

This genus has been featured twice before - Epimedium × versicolor 'Sulphureum' and Epimedium acuminatum -- but I'm pleased to be able to add something not previously mentioned. A quick search of Epimedium yields a number or results using the common name horny goatweed. A small stretch of the imagination provides the requisite myth behind this common name, involving goats and an observant farmer (see Epimedium via Wikipedia).

Epimedium grandiflorum has been used in traditional Chinese herbal medicine for many purposes the most prominent, and probably suspect, as an aphrodisiac (Plants For A Future lists 8 uses of this plant). Despite innumerable websites selling Epimedium grandiflorum extracts in the form of pills, sprays, and ointments, I was unable to find any real evidence for this alleged use. Research with rats, however, indicates that barrenwort may be a possible preventative medicine for osteoporosis, as a complement or alternative to hormone treatment in older women. In The osteoprotective effect of Herba epimedii (HEP) extract in vivo and in vitro (PDF), Xie et al. look at the mechanism by which Epimedium extracts could possibly help reduce bone loss.

Even though there are no flies to spot, a close look will net you a reflection of me in the lower left pneumatocyst (I was wearing a hat) and partial reflections in the other two (mostly of the legs of the tripod).

Anyway, I thought this would be a decent follow-up to yesterday's BPotD. I've tried taking photographs of Garry oak habitats before, but I wasn't happy with the results. This is better than what I've done previously, but I've still some ways to go.

Despite its location (minutes away from the extremely popular Butchart Gardens), Oak Haven Park is, by my estimation, rarely visited except by those who live nearby. At 10.2 hectares (25 acres), it is the "largest intact Garry oak ecosystem left in Central Saanich". That's not very large. In many ways, its obscurity is a good thing -- if even a twentieth of Butchart Garden's visitors toured here, it'd quickly become a degraded ecosystem (or require all trails to be fenced). On the other hand, places need to be known about if they are ultimately going to be cared-for and protected.

The most common plant in flower in the park a few weeks ago was Erythronium oregonum, meaning I was (once again) too early for the show of flowers in the meadows in a good year (something like the photograph on this page linked above).

Fritillaria affinis has just begun flowering in the Garry Oak Meadow at the UBC Botanical Garden. The meadow is part of a recent initiative to expand the garden's native plant collections. To learn more about this unique and threatened landscape in British Columbia, visit the site of the Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team.

Native to western North America, Fritillaria affinis populations can be found in southern British Columbia through to California. Common English names include checker lily, chocolate lily, or mission bells.

Flowers can be single or in clusters of 3-5 and are produced in the spring (April-May). They can range from 1-4cm long, and are often purple as a base colour, then checkered with greenish-yellow dots. In fact, the genus name is based on this checkered pattern: Fritillaria is derived from the Latin fritillus, which means "dice box".

Flower shape and colour can vary significantly depending on location (e.g., see the Pacific Bulb Society Wiki on North American Fritillaria). All flowers are hermaphroditic, though, meaning they have both staminate (pollen-producing) and carpellate (ovule-producing) structures.

This perennial plant can range in height from 10 to 130cm. The leaves can range from 3-15 cm long, and are often arranged in whorls of 3-5 leaves along the stem. Plants emerge from a bulb typically surrounded by smaller bulblets (link to commercial site).

The USDA NRCS has an extensive factsheet about Fritillaria affinis (PDF), including details about the traditional harvest and cultivated management of these bulbs by the Coast and Interior Salish First Nations.

Here's today's entry, written by Connor:

Also known as orache and mountain-spinach, Atriplex hortensis can be found in cultivation worldwide. It is possibly native to central Asia, but the widespread cultivation obscures its origin. Mountain-spinach was formerly in the Chenopodiaceae before this entire family was included in the Amaranthaceae (via Wikipedia).

Plants For A Future Database reports a number of intriguing uses of orache. Not only do they taste like spinach, the leaves of mountain-spinach are suggested as an externally-applied remedy for gout. The seeds, when mixed with wine, are thought to be a possible treatment for jaundice.

Atriplex hortensis is a halophyte, meaning it grows well in saline soils. This is an increasingly valuable trait in cultivated plants, given the widespread use of irrigation. About one-half of the Earth's land surface is "perennial desert or drylands" requiring irrigation for use in cultivation, a consequence of which is soil salinization (from Improving crop salt tolerance (PDF)). Irrigation salinity is "the rise in saline groundwater and the build up of salt in the soil surface in irrigated areas. Inefficient irrigation or applying more water than the plants can use means that this excess water leaks past the root zone to groundwater (recharge). This excess water can cause the watertable to 'mound' under irrigation areas and in some cases the ground becomes waterlogged."

Species of Atriplex are able to tolerate saline soils because they concentrate the accumulated salt in specialized cells on the leaf surface called trichomes (from Vesiculated Hairs: A Mechanism for Salt Tolerance in Atriplex halimus L. (PDF)). In Introduction of a Na+/H+ antiporter gene from Atriplex gmelini confers salt tolerance to rice, the ability of transgenic rice plants to tolerate saline soil was evaluated. A gene from Atriplex responsible for a protein pump which transports salt ions across the cell membrane and the vacuole membrane was incorpoarated into rice plants. The transgenic plants were more tolerant of saline conditions not because they transported more ions into their cells reducing water loss through osmosis, but because they were able to transport more salt into the vacuoles of individual cells. Older leaves of the transgenic plants died because of this but the younger leaves continued to grow.

Many thanks to annkelliot@Flickr for a great photo (original via the UBCBG BPotD Flickr Pool).

Species of Illicium can be found in both the New and Old World. Native species can be found in both southeast Asia and southeastern North America. The Illiciaceae are contained within the Austrobaileyales, one of the basal angiosperm lineages. The sister group to the Austrobaileyales includes the monocots, eumagnoliids, and eudicots.

In The four-celled female gametophyte of Illicium (Illiciaceae; Austrobaileyales): implications for understanding the origin and early evolution of monocots, eumagnoliids, and eudicots, Williams and Friedman trace the evolution of the female gametophyte through various angiosperm lineages.

The most common female gametophyte, or embryo-sac, in angiosperms is the Polygonum-type. It consists of two synergid cells which attract the growing pollen tubes, and an egg at the micropylar end. At the chalazal end three antipodal cells are present which are thought to function in embryo-sac nutrition. At the centre of the Polygonum-type embryo-sac are two polar nuclei which can fuse to become a binucleate central cell and the triploid (3n) endoserpm upon fertilization.

By examining the four-celled gametophyte found in Illicium, Williams and Friedman hypothesized that this type (also found in another basal angiosperm lineage, Nympheales) is an ancestral feature in the angiosperms. The Polygonum-type and other seven-celled / eight-nucleate embryo-sacs are the product of several modifications to this ancestral type which included the addition of the three antipodal cells and the binucleate central cell. This embryo-sac is a derived character of the monocots, eumagnoliids, and eudicots. Interestingly, the authors note that a seven-celled / eight-nucleate female gametophyte is also found in the most basal angiosperm clade, Amborellaceae. However it does not function in the same way as the similar embryo-sacs found in the higher angiosperms and is thought to be a separate derivation of the seven-celled/ eight-nucleate female gametophyte.

In Developmental evolution of the sexual process in ancient flowering plant lineages (PDF), the same authors provide a thorough description of each embryo-sac development mentioned above along with diagrams.

Connor writes:

Many thanks to Michelle Fitterer for today's photograph.

Rhizomnium glabrescens is a moss that can easily be found in the Nitobe Memorial Garden. It forms a dense, shiny turf under the coverage of the garden's tiny forest. In Some Common Mosses of Birtish Columbia, W.B. Schofield reports that Rhizomium glabrescens is limited to western North America from California to Alaska and as far west as Montana.

The most striking features of this moss can be seen from this photograph. The leaves are a pale green colour with a pronounced costa, a central midrib of specialized cells. The costa is made up of a central conducting strand and thick-walled cells called stereids. The central conducting strand functions as a water transport and the stereids provide support for the leaf.

The leaf margin is also well differentiated. Marginal cells are elongate, lack chloroplasts, and are found in multiple layers (multistratose), while the rest of the leaf blade contains chloroplasts and is only one cell layer thick (unistratose). The UBC Biology 321 website provides excellent images of Rhizomnium glabrescens.

The male plants of Rhizomnium glabrescens possess a rosette of leaves making up the perigonial head. The dark cluster in the centre are many antheridia with paraphyses, sterile filaments of cells. Inside the antheridia, mobile sperm with flagellae are produced. The perigonial head acts as a splash cup, increasing the sperm's dispersal distance when a raindrop falls on it.

Like yesterday's Cercis, Caesalpinia is a member of the legume family. It also belongs to the same subfamily -- the Caesalpinioideae (occasionally recognized as its own family, the Caesalpiniaceae). Members of this group typically grow in tropical and subtropical areas, and Caesalpinia gilliesii is no exception. Its native range includes Argentina, Peru, Chile and Uruguay, though it is naturalized elsewhere (including dryland areas of the southern USA). This particular plant was grown from seed by Roberta.

Common names for the species include bird-of-paradise shrub (though it is not a Strelitzia), desert bird of paradise, yellow bird of paradise, barba de chivo, and cat's claw (via Wikipedia).

One of the few "photographic regrets" I had from my recent trip to California was not stopping to photograph the flowering Cercis occidentalis in Shasta-Trinity National Forest of northern California. I was too intent on my destination, so instead I've added it to the ever-increasing list of places to revisit. Sandy's photograph brings back some pleasant memories, so I appreciate that. I also have to add that one of my favourite Eliot Porter photographs is Redbud Trees in Bottomland, Near Red River Gorge, Kentucky, a puny version of which can be seen via the Metropolitan Museum of Art (far better to see this as a print or reproduction in a book, though).

As alluded to above, Cercis canadensis is commonly called redbud, or a bit more specifically, eastern redbud. The cultivar 'Forest Pansy' is a popular choice among many gardeners, partly due to its purple foliage (along with many other fine qualities; see the Plant of Merit designation of Cercis canadensis 'Forest Pansy' from the Kemper Center for Home Gardening).

You have perhaps noted that the flowers of eastern redbud emerge directly from the branches and stems, a phenomenon called cauliflory (as opposed to emerging from buds on new growth or young stems). Wayne Armstrong has an extensive article on cauliflory, along with an explanation of its adaptive advantages. It is worth noting, as Mabberley does in The Plant-Book, that cauliflory is a trait almost exclusively found in tropical trees, with Cercis being one of the few exceptions. This property, combined with the disjunct distribution of Cercis in western North America, eastern North America, Mediterranean Europe and eastern Asia, suggests that Cercis was once more widespread during the periods when present-day northern temperate areas had tropical and subtropical climates.

I think these calla lilies are the cultivar 'Mango'. I called the florist yesterday, and the person answering the phone thought the name was 'Margo' (a non-existent cultivar, from what I can tell), so I concluded 'Mango' instead (and somewhat confirmed by the Zantedeschia photographs on the Pacific Bulb Society Wiki). Another point of evidence is the many commercial recommendations for its use as a cut flower in a search for "Zantedeschia 'Mango' cut flower".

Certainly, one of the elements that attracted me to this particular bouquet were the orange tones (the bouquet contains orange lilies and orange gerberas, as well). The Production and Landscape Horticulture program at Massey University in New Zealand has done some research into Zantedeschia pigmentation. As you might expect from a cultivar that is mainly orange with patches of red, it is concluded that 'Mango' contains a discontinuous layer of anthocyanins on a base of carotenoids.

Today's photographs and write-up are courtesy once again of Jackie Chambers, UBC Botanical Garden horticulturist. Thanks, Jackie.

Androcymbium palaestinum is a cormous perennial found in the deserts and semi-arid areas of Egypt, Israel and Jordan. A rosette of grey-green leaves emerges before the flowers; these leaves are wider at base and narrow towards the tip. They generally range in length from 5-10cm and can reach 3cm at the widest point. These rosettes are very low-growing, typically found tucked into rocky outcrops or hugging the dry ground (additional photographs via Flora of Israel).

Flowers emerge in December-February and sit in the middle of the leafy rosette. The white flowers often have reddish-purple stripes and can reach 2-5 cm in diameter. However, flower size and shape can vary depending on location. For example, compare these flowers growing out in the open with these flowers squeezing out of a rocky outcrop.

A closer inspection of the flower structure reveals that that the stamen is attached to the petal, and that at the base of each stamen is a pool of nectar. The nectar is most likely a reward for pollinators. For more on the intricate flower structure of Androcymbium see these illustrations. While this site deals with another species, Androcymbium rechingeri, the detailed botanical drawings give a good idea of general floral structure.

Research suggests that Androcymbium palaestinum contains the alkaloid colchicine. This substance was originally found in Colchicum, and has medicinal properties. It has also been used in plant breeding for inducing polyploidy. Colchicine inhibits the separation of chromosome pairs during meiosis, resulting in gametes that contain double the amount of chromosomes (diploid rather than haploid). For many living things this condition would be fatal, but in plants polyploidy often results in larger, more robust individuals (the subject of colchicine is also mentioned in this previous Botany Photo of the Day).

Not all horticultural success stories turn out well in the end. Voted by the US National Landscape Association in 1982 as the second-most popular tree in the USA, 'Bradford' pear has fallen into disrepute. It has prompted such article titles as, "The Pros & Cons of Bradford Pears", " Who Let the Pears Out?", and perhaps most ominously, "The Coming Plague of Pears" (thanks to Michael F for suggesting the latter two links on the UBC forums recently). Long story short: near-ideal street-tree planting due to disease resistance, lack of fruit production, fast-growth and adaptability turns out to have a weak growth structure for resisting ice and wind as well as fruit production when other related cultivars are introduced and cross-pollination can take place. The latter quality, combined with its adaptibility, is now revealing the invasive potential of the plant. It is now recommended in some areas to avoid planting new trees, as well as removing established ones.